Research Paper on Plato Essay Example for Free

Research Paper on Plato Essay Abstract Many Philosophers made a difference in society but Plato is perhaps recognized as the most famous. His writings have had a profound effect on people, politics, and the philosophy throughout the centuries. He was a public figure and he made major contributions to society. Plato helped to lay the philosophical foundations of modern culture through his ideas and writings. One of the most philosophical thinkers of Western civilization, Plato is the only author from ancient Greek times whose writings survive intact. His collection consists of thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters, though the authorship of some is contested. Plato was born in Athens, into a prosperous aristocratic family. His Father’s name was Ariston and his Mother’s name was Perictione. His relative named Glaucon was one of the best-known members of the Athenian nobility. Platos name was Aristocles, his nickname Plato originates from wrestling circles, Plato means broad, and it probably refers either to his physical appearance or his wrestling style. â€Å"Plato is, by any reckoning, one of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philosophy,† (Kraut, 2009). Plato was born during the Golden Age of Athens’s which saw the birth of classical architecture, drama, arts and politics. However, as he was growing up he observed the decline of Athens as a cultural center. He witnessed instances of cruelty, disloyalty, and dishonesty and it was in clear violation of his values. It was also during this time that Plato fell under the influence of Socrates, who engaged the people of Athens in philosophical discussions. â€Å"It was into this bright, sly, worldly atmosphere that Socrates appeared, moving questioningly about the streets of Athens†. (Plato 1984). In 339 Socrates was brought to trial and charged with having false Gods and corrupting the youth. Socrates was found guilty on the charge and was sentenced to death. The execution of Socrates weighed heavily on Plato and he turned away from politics, he thought the behavior of the courts was unjust. He decided not to get involved in political life, instead he decided to leave Athens with other friends of Socrates to travel and study. During his travels he met with all kinds of people and studied not only philosophy but geometry, astronomy, and religious teachings. Socrates was extremely influential to Plato and he was the main character in numerous writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans. One of the most important goals Plato set for himself was to keep the memory of Socrates alive by recording and bringing about the kind of impact that Socrates had on people. Nearly all of Plato’s work takes the structure of dialogues in which Socrates is usually the main character. One of the goals of a Plato’s dialogue is to engross the reader in philosophical questions related to the ideas being discussed. The Socrates of the Platonic dialogues is modeled after the real Socrates but it is in part an imaginary character used to impart Platonic themes. Plato’s dialogues are divided into three groups, the early or Socratic dialogues; the dialogues of middle age; and the dialogues of old age. In the early dialogues, Socrates is the main character, but it is generally believed that Plato is expressing his own views. These are the only remaining dialogues of Socrates teachings hence; they are referred to as the Socratic dialogues. In The Apology Socrates was accused of having false gods and corrupting the youth. While on trial Socrates claimed that he was innocent and was not at all wise, â€Å"Men of Athens, I honor and love you; but I shall obey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease from the practice and teaching of philosophy Understand that I shall never alter my ways, not even if I have to die many times. † (Plato 1984). Middle Dialogues During Platos middle period he wrote the following, Meno, Republic, Euthydemus, Menexenus, Cratylus, Phaedrus, Symposium and Phaedo. The most important difference between these writings and his earlier works is that he is establishing his own voice in philosophy. In the Meno Plato introduces us to the Socratic idea that no one knowingly does wrong, â€Å"Virtue is the desire of things honourable and the power of attaining them. † Plato (1984). In the Phaedo we become familiar with the platonic doctrine of the Forms; this is where Plato makes a claim as to the immortality of the soul. Platos most influential work, The Republic, is part of the middle dialogues. It is a discussion of the virtues of justice, courage and wisdom. It addresses the question of how do humans approach living a good life. The dialogue finishes by looking at various forms of government and describing the ideal state. The allegory of the â€Å"Myth of the Cave† is also in The Republic it is an important writing because it contains the main points of his philosophy. It is intended to be a metaphor for education and it explains issues regarding the theory of knowledge. Plato believed one must explore the belief that a greater reality exists. It is through this belief that a person can gain greater insight into true reality and become enlightened. Without it we are like the prisoners of a cave who only see the shadows of objects and live in complete darkness. â€Å"And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened, behold! Human beings living in an underground den† (Plato 1927). It is only through philosophy that we can come out of the cave into the true world. â€Å"Who is best suited to rule the state – lovers of opinion or true philosophers? (Plato 1927) His final years at the Academy he wrote the later dialogues which included the Parmenides, Theatetus, Sophist, Statesmas, Timaeus, Critias, Philebus, and Laws. It should be noted that Socrates has a minor role in these writings. Plato examines his metaphysical theories through these dialogues. He discusses art, dance, music, poetry, drama, and ethics in connection to immortality and the mind. He also dedicates himself to the philosophy of mathematics, politics and religion. Plato argued that women were qualified to play a role in politics and philosophy. In The Republic, Socrates argued that women were as capable as men in pursuit of accomplishments. There is a suggestion that women should be educated for their roles in the class of guardians and possibly work next to men. A woman’s role could be significant in society, but different from a man’s role. Even though Plato believed that women were necessary in a working society, he did not mean he thought women were equals of men. Plato thought that women lacked the strength of men and that women were more suited for other responsibilities in life. â€Å"If women are expected to do the same work as men, we must teach them the same things. † (Plato 1927) The impact of Plato’s work cannot be measured or calculated. His writings had great influence on the entire intellectual development of Western civilization. Despite the fact that Plato did not leave a well-formed, rigid philosophical system he is considered the father for all forms of philosophical idealism and dualism. â€Å"The object of education is to teach us to love what is beautiful. † (Plato 1984). After he died the Academy continued until AD 529, when it was closed due to its pagan teachings. Neo-Platonism, founded by the 3rd-century philosopher Plotinus, was an important development of Platonism. It was a philosophical system which was as a combination of Platonic, Pythagorean, and Aristotelian elements. Originally it was opposed to Christianity but later on it integrated it. It dominated European thought until the 13th century and re-emerged during the Renaissance. The most important Renaissance Neo-Platonist was â€Å"Marsilio Ficino† who developed significant ideas from Plato and Neo-Platonism. Ficino founded of the Academy in Firenze and was responsible for the circulation of Neo-Platonic ideas. Ficino is credited with translating all of Platos’ dialogues into Latin and produced a great work called Platonic Theology, in which he outlines Neo-Platonism. His philosophy is based on the doctrine that the human soul is the center of the cosmos. It is the only thing that sits between the world of ideas and the world is the soul. Neo-Platonism was revived in the 17th century by the Cambridge Platonists such as Cudworth and Smith. The school stressed the importance of reason, maintaining that faith and reason are not that different. Rene Descartes an 18th century philosopher and Neo-Platonist developed a method to achieve truths. If something is not recognized by the intellect or reason can be classified as knowledge. According to Descartes. These truths are gained without any sensory experience (Descartes). He argued that as a result of his method, reason alone determined knowledge and that this could be done independently of the senses. â€Å"Cogito ergo sum, I think therefore I exist† (Descartes) Plato developed an absolutist ethical theory which is that there is a greater good toward which to aspire. He developed this theory to respond to the skepticism and the beliefs of the Sophists who Plato felt did not preach wisdom, but rather their opinions. Plato tried to protect the part of reasoning in human life though he had resistance from the ancient Greek preachers know as the Sophists. They came from different cities and proclaimed that they were able to impart knowledge to young men how to live prosperous lives. Even though the Sophists did not belong to a school and did not have a common creed, some opinions were typical of them as a group and were absolutely conflicting to the views of Plato. The Sophists were great communicators and skilled public speakers. Plato felt that the Sophists were more likely to appeal to emotions rather than to reason. According to Plato philosophers influence people’s souls not their bodies and Plato agreed with Socrates in thinking that the nurturing of the soul is more vital than the nurturing of the body. Furthermore, he also believed that true leaders need to have wisdom, and knowledge. Platos influence has been monumental as one philosopher said the history of philosophy is simply a series of footnotes to Plato. (Whitehead) Platos has been criticized down through the centuries for his philosophy of the forms. His ideas of the just life and an ideal state are complex. Plato tended to specifically ignores much of human nature. Plato did not think in the realm of the physical world, he was always looking to a different one where things exist only if he can prove there existence. References Kraut, R. (2009, Sept) Plato Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/plato; Plato. (1984) Great dialogues of Plato New York: Mentor Books trans. by Benjamin Jowett Blackburn, S. (1945) The republic of Plato. (45 ed. ). London: Oxford University Press, USA. trans. By Desmond Lee Descartes. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/descartes-works; Alfred North Whitehead. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/whitehead/

Corporate Social Responsibilty In Mauritius Management Essay

Corporate Social Responsibilty In Mauritius Management Essay The European Commission defined Corporate Social Responsibility as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. In other words, it concerns actions by companies over and above their legal obligations towards society and the environment. According to the European Commission certain regulatory measures can create a more conducive environment for organisations to voluntarily meet their social responsibility. Similarly, the National Empowerment Foundation (NEF) defines Corporate Social Responsibility as the concept whereby companies act to balance their own economic growth with the sustainable social and environmental development of the country. An organisation that is highly involved in CSR is one that goes beyond the legal compliance and actively practices positive impacts on the local communities and the environment. In fact, there is not a standard definition of Corporate Social Responsibility as it is varies according to various countries and cultures. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has become an important issue over the last two decades. Lawyers, practitioners, economists, and civil society have contributed to defining, developing, and analysing the content, nature and implementation of CSR (P. R.Waagstein, 2011). CSR has been practiced by companies all over the world for many years as shown by many researchers. At the beginning, it was more for staff well-being. For instance, during the industrial revolution and age, factories provided different facilities for the community surrounding them in order to make use of their labour. Over the past few years, both businesses and academic researchers have shown increasing interest and enthusiasm for Corporate Social Responsibility. For instance, research done has suggested that CSR may be an efficient tool to improve the legitimacy of companies amongst their stakeholders as per Handelman and Arnold (1999), and to develop positive social responsibility images, according to Sen and Bhattacharya (2001). PROBLEM STATEMENT The term CSR has, over years, been coined to allow the economic development of a country to participate in the socio-economic development. By being responsible for society, the same industries were allowed to give back, in a responsible way, to people working for them and purchasing their goods and services. Amongst the different levels of society, the emergence of need for different categories arose, for example, handicapped people, abandoned children, out laws, the elderly and street people. Thus, Corporate Social Responsibility became a term used for catering to all categories of humans and their wellness in the society. At the onset, Corporate Social Responsibility was a voluntary initiative for companies to act socially responsible. However, over the years, especially in the new millennium, since complete improvement was not totally visible around the world, the United Nations proposed some Millennium Development Goals to improve the general conditions of living. One of their main goals was to eradicate absolute poverty in developing countries and underdeveloped countries. Indeed, the United Nations Millennium Campaign, started in 2002, supports and inspires people from all four corners of the world to get involved and take actions in supporting the Millennium Development Goals. As stated, the main challenges and major concerns of the International community is to eradicate absolute poverty, but this can only be done by the combined efforts of all governments, civil society organisations and the private sector. As mentioned by the United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon the goals are ambitious but feasible and, together with the comprehensive United Nations development agenda, set the course for the worlds efforts to alleviate extreme poverty by 2015. The Government of Mauritius has established a policy with the objective of mandating registered companies to pay 2% of their book profit towards programmes that contribute to the social and environmental development of the country. In Mauritius, CSR has been formulated in the year 2008, when then the Minister of Finance decided that companies should reinvest 2% of their book profit towards societal development. To date, CSR has been practiced by companies for years and one of the main issues that arose recently is how to regulate it. Should it be a legal norm, ethical norm or social norm? This question can be further elaborated: Should CSR be regulated through state regulation, code of conduct or self-regulation? Should it be regulated in a voluntary way or should it be an obligation to corporations? Another question that arises is whether it is the role of the private sector to take care or to look after the society, or whether it is the role of the government to do so, since all companies are paying tax and the main objective of a company is to maximise profits. In addition, on a different perspective, another question emerges: should an organisation only focus on maximising profits or should its role as a so cially responsible organisation also include looking after its society and the community? Matten and Moon (2008) offers a broad interpretation, arguing that it should be perceived both as a social imperative and social consequence of business success. Accordingly, two forms of CSR, implicit and explicit, have been introduced. Implicit CSR is embedded in various relationships among business, society and government within the political system. It is represented by strong values, norms and rules or regulations which require corporations to address stakeholder issues. It is important to note that politics and organisations are interrelated and interdependent as they need each other to accomplish their social responsibility in an effective and efficient way. A textbook example in Mauritius would be the Compagnie Mauricienne de Textile (CMT) that has donated Rs 25m to the government for the new project of building a high tech school for vulnerable and deprived children. 1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The aim of this research is to determine the importance of voluntary or mandatory CSR for the overall socio-economic development of the country. In this context, the specific objectives are to: To assess the local opinion of CSR drivers and whether it is better as a mandatory or voluntary practice. This will provide a course of action for the new Ministry of Social Integration and Economic Empowerment. To provide for modifications in the local way of practicing CSR and to be able to answer queries of International organisations on eradication of poverty. To make recommendations so as to meet the targets set by United Nations and the Millennium Development Goals project, and to showcase Mauritius as a success example in Africa. 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH In fact, Corporate Social Responsibility is mandatory in Mauritius and this research primarily focuses on determining the opinions, points of view and the experiences of companies that are actively engaged in CSR. Further assessment will be made as to whether they prefer a voluntary or mandatory implementation and determining whether the local way of practicing CSR has benefitted society and provided improvements in the current way local companies are practicing CSR. In addition, it analyses the need for mandatory Corporate Social Responsibility in Mauritius and determines whether the government should keep it mandatory or voluntary or both. It further develops the idea of whether voluntary CSR should be modified to some other form to cater to the needs of the Mauritian society. It also gives a comprehensive overview of findings and conclusions that will allow the local CSR Committee and Government to review and improve its CSR policies for the country. 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on the above research objectives of the study, the following research questions have been formulated: How organisations define Corporate Social Responsibility? Awareness of local CSR guidelines and what their opinions are and suggestions on the CSR guidelines? What problems they encounter while implementing CSR practices? How can the CSR Committee help in implementing CSR activities? How businesses perceive Corporate Social Responsibility as a mandatory practice in Mauritius. Should it be voluntary or mandatory? 1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter provides an overview of the topic research on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), and sets out the problem statement of the study, outlining the objectives of the research and highlighting the research questions. Chapter 2 Literature Review This chapter reviews the literature relevant to the topic. It provides past reviews carried out by different researchers on Corporate Social Responsibility in various countries around the world. It also provides a description of CSR implementation in Mauritius and the similarities and contrasts that exist among the different countries. Chapter 3 Methodology The methodology chapter outlines the methods and techniques used to conduct the study, namely the research approach, design and strategy used. Information about the target population including the sample size and sampling method is given along with details about the interview questionnaire. Chapter 4 Analysis and Findings This chapter presents the data analysis and research findings. The source of data has been derived mainly from interviews that have been carried out. Further, discussions are based on the findings of this study. Chapter 5 Recommendations and Conclusions In this final chapter, appropriate recommendations will be made and the chapter will end with a concluding paragraph including the possibility for further or future research. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents an overview of the literature relevant to Corporate Social Responsibility. It provides a review of the past studies carried out by different researchers. The idea of social responsibility emerged in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. Carroll (1989) states three critical turning points in the evolution of social responsibility: The Entrepreneurial Era Businessmen in America were building industrial empires and were abusing their power, being found guilty of antisocial and anticompetitive practices. Such practices included tax evasion and other unethical business practices. This caused frustration among the public who voiced their objections, causing the government to enforce laws whereby business had a role to play in society beyond profit maximisation. The Depression era of 1929- 1930s The economy of United States was dominated by large organisations and the government passed laws to protect investors and smaller businesses. In addition, the social responsibility of organisations was more clearly defined. (iii)The Social Era of 1960s This era was characterised by social turmoil in the United States. The Government looked closely at organisational practices and it was clearly defined to whom the organisation was responsible and who in an organisation was responsible for the organisational practices. Bowen (1953) the pioneering advocate of CSR, described Corporate Social Responsibility in terms of the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of objectives and values of our society. (Social Responsibilities of Businessmen, 1953). The emphasis was laid on peoples conscience rather on the company itself. This alteration in focus was provoked by a number of factors such as the managerial revolution and the mounting hostility of people experiencing social problems. The obligations were further elaborated upon, going beyond economic and legal implications by including the employee, the community welfare and the political and educational needs of society (McGuire, 1963). This gave rise to the modern concept of corporate citizenship (Maignan, Ferrell, and Hult, 1999). The Committee for Economic Development (1971) viewed CSR as the service of a wide range of human values to improve the quality of life. The managerial role in changing societal expectations has also been articulated by the Committee. On one hand, Manne Wallich (1972) mentioned that businesses should not spoil society but should provide solutions through voluntary assumption of obligations. On the other hand, Caroll (1979) summarised the discussion by providing the following definition: social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical and discretionary expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in time. Figure 1 Carrolls classic pyramid (Carroll, 1991) Carrolls CSR Pyramid covers the whole perspective of what society can expect from a company, economically as well as socially. This theory can be used to identify a companys CSR activities and how they use CSR as a strategy. It will further explain and recognise the connection between a companys CSR activities and its stakeholders. Carrolls CSR Pyramid can be used as a tool to clarify the different kinds of responsibilities that a company has to fulfil in order to achieve legitimacy from its surrounding society and stakeholders. 2.1 Definition of Corporate Social Responsibility Various organisations have viewed CSR in different ways, although there are considerable common opinions between them. According to Mallen Baker (2004), CSR is about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society. Lord Holmes and Richard Watts (2000), in their publications Making Good Business Sense, defined CSR as: Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large. This publication also provides some evidence of the different perceptions of what this should mean to a number of different societies across the world. It respects cultural differences and finds the business opportunities in building the skills of employees, the community and the government through CSR. Corporate Social Responsibility Developing Countries and Overseas Experiences In the year 2000 , the Millennium Development Goals set the challenge of Corporate Social responsibility in developing countries in view of eradicating poverty, hunger, providing better education to children, equal opportunities for women and a healthier environment (UN, 2006: 3). Unfortunately, in many developing countries these global aspirations have remained unaccomplished. (Visser et al., 2007) viewed CSR in developing countries as the formal and informal ways in which business makes a contribution to improving the governance, social, ethical, labour and environmental conditions of the developing countries in which they operate, while remaining sensitive to prevailing religious, historical and cultural contexts. According to a survey done by Welford (2005) in Asia, research showed that countries such as Hong Kong, Malaysia and Thailand where indicative of having less prevalent CSR activities. Malaysia is considered as the weakest in terms of CSR performance, with Thailand being relatively strong on external aspects (such as child labour and ethics) and Hong Kong being generally better on internal aspects (such as non-discrimination and equal opportunities). It was determined through a review done on CSR literature (Visser et al, 2006) that only 12 out of 53 countries in Africa have publications in CSR journals and that 57% of published articles focus on South Africa with 16% focusing on Nigeria. On one hand, CSR in the United States has been defined mainly in terms of a philanthropic model. Most companies focus on making and maximising profits and only contribute to charitable activities in an effort to benefit from tax concessions, contributing a certain share of the profits to charitable institutions. They believe that receiving any benefits from charitable sharing would tarnish the reputation of the company. On the other hand, the Canadian Governments perception of CSR is generally understood to be the way a company achieves a balance or integration of economic, environmental and social imperatives while at the same time addressing shareholder and stakeholder expectations. According to Cecil (2008), disclosure of CSR in the United States does not currently exist and is therefore unregulated as a required framework. In fact, various models and categories of reporting do exist under the umbrella of CSR, such as environmental reports, social reports and sustainability reports. Therefore the CSR report is separate from the annual report and represents non-financial qualitative and quantitative data. In contrast to other developed countries, Corporate Social Responsibility in the United States is not forcefully imposed. Companies in the United States participate in CSR based on their own moral and social values, allowing them to apply the triple-bottom-line approach voluntarily. In comparison, the laws of Mauritius state that it is mandatory for profit bearing organisations to pay the government 2% of their annual book profit as a CSR contribution. While companies in the United States have no mandatory obligation towards CSR, they widely exploit the CSR programme as a means of increasing their public image and corporate reputation. Given the fact that CSR in the United States is non-mandatory, companies can define and interpret their views of social responsibility within the context of own their company. Having this freedom has allowed them to better measure and promote CSR activities in comparison to their International counterparts. It is interesting to note that although companies in the United States are very explicit in their public statements with relation to their commitment to corporate responsibility, the lack of precise definition has led to confusion in terminology. A wide range of terms for CSR now exists, such as social responsibility, community investment and corporate citizenship. Each company tends to define them differently, yet having little understanding of what they actually mean, whether that is philanthropic giving, raw material sourcing or employment practices. Mauritius in comparison, although less developed than the United States, has a well-defined CSR programme as the mandatory enforcement of social responsibility has led to a single, precise and distinct perception thereof. The Government of the United Kingdom interprets CSR as the contribution a business makes to their sustainable development goals in terms of how they account for economic, social and environmental impacts. According to I. Pearson, Minister of the state UK, the world is experiencing major economic challenges and the issue of Corporate Responsibility must remain high on business and political agendas. He states that most successful companies have always been the most responsible. Business leaders recognise that Corporate Responsibility makes good business sense and it attracts the best talent, earns the trust of customers and the community and acts as a powerful investment for long-term sustainability. However, just like the United States, and in contrast to Mauritius, CSR is voluntary in the United Kingdom. The Government of the United Kingdom has adopted the voluntary approach as they believe it will motivate and encourage Corporate Social Responsibility through best practice guidance, and where appropriate, regulation and fiscal incentives. In the United Kingdom, CSR is viewed as a voluntary activity that should address both competitive and social interests. Mauritius does not share this approach and even encourages companies to contribute above the legal requirement to benefit the community and environment, invest in education and to help eradicate poverty. The question of whether or not CSR should be considered mandatory emerges when we consider that countries like the United States and the United Kingdom have no such legal compliance obligations. Why would a country like Mauritius, being a small island in the Indian Ocean, apply CSR as compulsory, especially considering that Mauritius is only the second country in the world where CSR is mandatory? NRE (Nouvelles Regulations Economique) law introduced in France in 2001 requires that all publicly listed French companies disclose information to their stakeholders pertaining to social and environmental impacts on their activities, together with their annual reports. There is no requirement for any specific constraints to be included with regards to their standards, thresholds or any other regulatory requirements. Although the law has been introduced, it should be considered as a soft law since the disclosed information is not regulated and there are no clear rules with regards to non-compliance. The legal responsibility is to report on social and environment impacts but without the requirement for certification of the disclosed information. In addition, the law does not clearly outline possible sanctions that may be imposed in cases of non-compliance or falsification of information. According to the research presented by L. Drusch and A.Lioui (2010) there has been a rapid growth in Corporate Social Responsibility in France over the last decade. This growth can be measured by the increase in the number of French companies that are listed in the Socially Responsible Investment (SRI) index in France as well as the listing of French companies in International CSR rankings, such as the 100 Most Sustainable Corporations in the World listing. Like the United States, CSR in France is based on the triple-bottom-line approach and is aimed at improving social, economic or environmental aspects in society beyond financial motivation. In addition, the United States does provide CSR reporting to some extent although not regulated and submitted in a separate report to the annual statements. In July 2007, Indonesia enforced a mandatory regulation regarding corporate social responsibility, being the first country in the world to do so. Based on the research done by Rosser et al (2008), Indonesia promotes CSR to local small and medium enterprises as a way to reach US and European markets. As compared to Mauritius, where the obligation is to pay 2% of the book profit, Indonesia has imposed a 3-5% obligation to be paid to the government. According to empirical data, the CSR law in Indonesia requires revision and improvement due to misinterpretations thereof, as well as lack of a precise definition. The law created a fierce debate and was heavily challenged as being nothing more than a philanthropy tax that was detrimental for business. Those challenging the law argue that there is no need to regulate CSR as sectorial rules have already been defined and introduced to regulate corporate responsibilities, such as the Environmental Law, Labour Law and Investment Law. The law is very unclear with regards to the governments expectations and has no clear definition of CSR. Unlike France, the law in Indonesia does stipulate penalties for non-compliance. Grafstrà ¶m et al (2008) identified that over the past three decades, the term CSR has been extensively debated by companies and in academic circles across the globe with a common goal: to identify a definition of CSR that all and sundry can collectively agree upon. Kemp et al (2001) observed that companies were hesitant to divulge their actual CSR activities due to the confusion that the term has produced over the past years. It was found that companies are reluctant to publish their activities for fear of reprisal by the media and NGOs should their approach be erroneous. Carroll (1998) found that companies often interpret regulations incorrectly and that laws often create a hindrance rather than improving economic performance. Although Mauritius followed Indonesias stance on mandatory CSR, being only the second country in the world to do so, the differences between the two countries can be easily identified. When the law was introduced, Indonesia faced fierce disapproval and the mandatory requirement is still an on-going debate. It remains mostly a disorganised and misunderstood concept whereas Mauritius appears to have a clearly understanding of what CSR actually entails as opposed to simply being a governmental tax requirement. The introduction of CSR into the Mauritian business environment was done so with a clear understanding on the benefits to business success, reputation and the social impact that such contributions would make on the island. Many are of the opinion that even if CSR was not mandatory in Mauritius, most organisations would still voluntarily contributing to CSR as a good business practice. Like Indonesia, India faced strong criticism when trying to impose mandatory CSR obligations in 2011. Their intention was to make it mandatory for companies to contribute at least 2% of net profits to the government. In July 2011 the Indian government backed down and made CSR contributions voluntary by recasting it as responsible business and issuing a set of guidelines for companies released on July 8th 2011 by the then Union Minister of Corporate Affairs, Mr. Murli Deora. The debate surrounding the mandatory CSR in India continues and the government has requested that companies keep records of their CSR spending in order to disclose to their stakeholders. The Companies Bill 2009 contains many provisions but none more debated than CSR. Salman Khurshid (the current Union minister for law) and Deoras predecessor, initially a mandatory CSR enthusiast, swayed his views that if CSR contributions were publicised, they would create competitiveness between organisations that in turn would encourage contributions. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce Industry (FICCI) suggested tax concessions to companies who reached voluntary targets. The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), a rival of the Indian Chambers, felt that mandatory corporate responsibility would be counterproductive, arguing that companies may resort to camouflaging activities to meet such regulations, particularly during recessionary periods and economic downturns. Indias philanthropic community does not support mandatory CSR. According to research, the CEO of the NGO Give India viewed this as a crazy idea. He believed that once CSR is made mandatory, people will find ways and means to get out of it. The rules would be so vague that the reporting would be even vaguer. The CEO and co-founder of the Dasra foundation agreed. He was not in favour of mandatory CSR. He felt that when you make things mandatory, the chance of them not being done would be greater. Philanthropist Rohini Nilekani strongly opposed mandatory CSR believing that it was just outsourcing of governance. She felt that if wanted, the corporations should be taxed and the money put into social programs but that CSR should not be dictated. Corporate giants, TATA and BIRLA, have practiced Corporate Social Responsibility actively, decades before the term CSR became popular in India. Even still, CSR remains misunderstood in the Indian Development Sector. Only a few private and public companies apply CSR and those that do tend to have International shareholding from countries where CSR is considered a business best practice. India attempted to follow in the footsteps of Indonesia and Mauritius by imposing mandatory CSR regulations, the only other country to have actively considered such enforcement. It seems evident from the various researchers and the review of the various approaches and overseas experiences that there is a marked difference in the concept and interpretation of CSR world-wide. Mauritian Context In Mauritius, private organisations are reputed to have an extended culture and tradition of CSR, principally in terms of voluntary social engagement in the communities where they operate and in the society at large. They have participated and contributed over the years to the social and environmental development of the country. Previous survey reports published by the Mauritius Employers Fund (MEF) in 2006 and 2008 indicate that Mauritian businesses in their large majority believe that their role in society extends beyond wealth generation and that pursuing economic interests needs to be balanced with social and environmental responsibility. Indeed, Mauritian enterprises have been engaged in both internal and external CSR, driven mainly by ethical considerations, employee motivation, company reputation and brand positioning. They have also taken into consideration benefits of employees and engaged in external CSR initiatives by contributing and supporting social and community relate d activities. The MEF Surveys have also shown that CSR has followed a rather philanthropic approach, characterised by informal activities, unrelated to business operations and strategy. The recent economic and financial crisis has led to a rise in the level of involvement of governments in the operation of the business sector across the world. There is also an emerging debate in the Corporate Social Responsibility literature with regards to the role of the state in the business relationship. Despite the efforts made by government and International agencies, the global poverty problem is worsening day by day. Thus, the contribution of organisations to Corporate Social Responsibility for the creation of a better society is rising. Corporate Social Responsibility Mandatory in Mauritius According to Y.Ramtohul (Sept 2011), on one hand, in Mauritius, all companies such as those holding a Category 1 Global Business Licence under the Financial Services Act, banks in Mauritius whose income is derived from banking transactions with non-resident or corporation holding a global business license under the financial, IRS companies as mentioned in the investment promotion ( Real Estate Development Scheme) Regulations 2007, as well as any non-resident societe , a trust or a trustee of a unit trust scheme are exempted from mandatory obligation from contributing to the CSR fund. On the other hand , all other companies incorporated and registered at the Registrar of Companies of Mauritius have to contribute 2% of their annual book profits to the CSR fund as provided by the S 50L of the Income Tax of Mauritius ( Act 16 1995). According to the S 50L of the same Act the 2 % that goes to the CSR fund shall be used to either implement an approved programme by a company, an approved programme under the National Empowerment Foundation or to finance an approved NGO. It is the responsibility of the CSR committee to review these programmes or NGOs to be financed as set up under the S 50 L section of the Income Tax in order to have a better control and transparency about the investment made. It is also interesting to understand that if, in respect to a year, the amount paid out to the CSR fund is less than 2% then the difference shall be remitted as an income and will be taxed at the end of the financial year. Statutory Requirements As from July 2009, companies in Mauritius therefore have the legal obligation to contri

An Overview of Consent and Restraint

An Overview of Consent and Restraint Consent, Deliberate or implied affirmation; compliance with a course of  proposed action. Consent is essential in a number of circumstances. For example,  contracts and marriages are invalid unless both parties give their consent. Consent  must be given freely, without duress or deception, and with sufficient legal  competence to give it (see also INFORMED CONSENT). In criminal law, issues of consent  arise mainly in connection with offences involving violence and *dishonesty. For  public-policy reasons, a victims consent to conduct which foreseeably causes him  bodily harm is no defence to a charge involving an *assault, *wounding, or  *homicide; in other cases the defendant should be acquitted if the magistrates or  jury have a reasonable doubt not only as to whether the victim had consented but  also as to whether he thought the victim had consented. Restraint,  assault and  an intentional or reckless act that causes someone to be put in fear of  immediate physical harm. Actual physical contact is not necessary to constitute an  assault (for example, pointing a gun at someone is an assault), but the word is often  loosely used to include both threatening acts and physical violence (see BATTERY).   Words alone cannot constitute an assault. Assault is a form of *trespass to the  person and a crime as well as a tort: an ordinary (or common) assault, as described  above, is a *summary offence punishable by a *fine at level 5 on the standard scale  and/or up to six months imprisonment. Certain kinds of more serious assault are  known as aggravated assaults and carry stricter penalties. Examples of these are  assault with intent to resist lawful arrest (two years), assault occasioning *actual  bodily harm (five years), and assault with intent to rob (life imprisonment).   battery The intentional or reckless application of physical force to someone  without his consent. Battery is a form of *trespass to the person and is a *summary  offence (punishable with a *fine at level 5 on the standard scale and/or six months  imprisonment) as well as a tort, even if no actual harm results. If actual harm does  result, however, the *consent of the victim may not prevent the act from being  criminal, except when the injury is inflicted in the course of properly conducted  sports or games (e.g.rugby or boxing) or as a result of reasonable surgical  intervention. Duty of care, The legal obligation to take reasonable care to avoid causing damage. There is no liability in tort for *negligence unless the act or omission that causes  damage is a breach of a duty of care owed to the claimant. There is a duty to take  care in most situations in which one can reasonably foresee that ones actions may  cause physical damage to the person or property of others. The duty is owed to  those people likely to be affected by the conduct in question. Thus doctors have a  duty of care to their patients and users of the highway have a duty of care to all  other road users. But there is no general duty to prevent other persons causing  damage or to rescue persons or property in danger, liability for careless words is  more limited than liability for careless acts, and there is no general duty not to  cause economic loss or psychiatric illness. In these and some other situations, the  existence and scope of the duty of care depends on all the circumstances of the  relationship between the parties. Most duties of care are th e result of judicial  decisions, but some are contained in statutes, such as the Occupiers Liability Act  1957 Negligence and  Carelessness amounting to the culpable breach of a duty: failure  negligent misstatement 328 329 NHS Trust  to do something that a reasonable man (i.e. an average responsible citizen) would do, or doing something that a reasonable man would not do. In cases of professional negligence, involving someone with a special skill, that person is expected to show  the skill of an average member of his profession. Negligence may be an element in a  few crimes, e.g. *careless and inconsiderate driving, and various regulatory offences,  which are usually punished by fine. The main example of a serious crime that may  be committed by negligence is *manslaughter (in one of its forms). When negligence  is a basis of criminal liability, it is no defence to show that one was doing ones best  if ones conduct still falls below that of the reasonable man in the circumstances. See  also GROSS NEGLIGENCE. 2. A tort consisting of the breach of a *duty of care resultingà ‚  in damage to the claimant. Negligence in the sense of carelessness does not give rise  to civil liability unless the defendants failure to conform to the standards of the  reasonable man was a breach of a duty of care owed to the claimant, which has  caused damage to him. Negligence can be used to bring a civil action when there is  no contract under which proceedings can be brought. Normally it is easier to sue for  *breach of contract, but this is only possible when a contract exists. Generally, fewer  heads of damage can be claimed in negligence than in breach of contract, but the  rules limiting the time within which actions can be brought (see LIMITATION OF  ACTIONS) may be more advantageous for actions in tort for negligence than for  actions in contract. See also CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE; RES IPSA LOQUITUR.   vicarious liability   Legal liability imposed on one  person for torts or crimes committed by another (usually an employee but  vicarious performance 526 527 violent disorder  sometimes an *independent contractor or agent), although the person made  vicariously liable is not personally at fault. An employer is vicariously liable for  torts committed by his employees when he has authorized or ratified them or when  the tort was committed in the course of the employees work. Thus negligent  driving by someone employed as a driver is a tort committed in the course of his  employment, but if the driver were to assault a passing pedestrian for motives of  private revenge, the assault would not be connected with his job and his employer  would not be liable. The purpose of the doctrine of vicarious liability is to ensure  that an employer pays the costs of damage caused by his business operations. His  vicarious liability, however, is in addition to the liability of the employee, who   remains personally liable for his own torts. The person injured by the tort may sue  either or both of them, but will generally prefer to sue the employer.   Vicarious criminal liability may effectively be imposed by statute on an employer  for certain offences committed by an employee in relation to his employment. Thus  it has been held that an employer is guilty of selling unfit food under the Food Act  1984 when his employee does the physical act of selling (the employee is also guilty,  though in practice is rarely prosecuted). Likewise, an employer may be guilty of  supplying goods under a false trade description when it is his employee who  actually delivers them. For an offence that normally requires mens rea,an employer  will only be vicariously liable if the offence relates to licensing laws. For example, if  a licensee has delegated the entire management of his licensed premises to another  j:letson, and that j:letson has committed the offence with the nec~ssatymens YeQ, th~  licensee will be vicariously liable.   Vicarious liability for crimes may be imposed in certain other circumstances. The  registered owner of a vehicle, for example, is expressly made liable by statute for  fixed-penalty and excess parking charges, even if the fault for the offence was not  his. If the offence is a regulatory offence of *strict liability, the courts often also  impose vicarious liability if the offence is defined in the statute in a way that makes  this possible.   Scope of practice (the legal and professional boundaries imposed upon you as a nurse)   Advocacy (the nurses role as an advocate for the client)   Documentation   Open disclosure   The Coroner   An officer of the Crown whose principal function is to investigate  deaths suspected of being violent or unnatural. He will do this either by ordering an  *autopsy or conducting an *inquest. The coroner also holds inquests on *treasure  trove. Coroners are appointed by the Crown from among barristers, solicitors, and  qualified medical practitioners of not less than five years standing.   Colour. The normal colour of urine is pale straw or light yellow.   It is mainly due to the pigment urochrome and partly to urobilin.   Womens urine is slightly lighter.   If the quantity of urine is increased or there is a diminution or dilution of urinary pigments, it becomes lighter and rendered very pale as in excessive drinking, nervousness, anaemia, chlorosis, diabetes, hysteria, epilepsy, poluria, in general debility and in chronic interstitial nephritis. The colour of the urine will depend on the degree of concentration; the more concentrated-the darker; the greater the quantity of water -the lighter.   Acid urine is slightly darker than alkaline urine. Urine becomes deeper in colour, like orange or dark yellow or brownish red generally known as high coloured or concentrated urine and is due to uroerythrin and urobilin produced by increased haemolysis, as in. fevers, after journeys, in hot days, in nervous excitability and after bodily exercises. N ormal urine on standing for a time will have a white or sometimes a bluish white scum on the surface due to contamination and putrefaction.   Urine glairy, whitish in colour indicates admixture with pus or leucorrhceal discharges. Urine coloured smoky, brown, reddish, brownish black or black indicates admixture with blood and denotes haemorrhage. Urine coloured greenish yellow or greenish brown indicates admixture with bile and denotes jaundice and other affections of the liver. Urine coloured milky indicates admixture with fat or pus and denotes chyluria or any purulent disease of the genitourinary tract.   Urine coloured blue indicates typhus fever, admixture with methylene blue or when there is excess of indigogens. Many drugs after absorption colour the urine, such as yellowish orange by santonin and chrysophanic acid; reddish or orange brown by senna and rhubarb; dark olive green or black by carbolic acid and other coaltar derivatives while antipyrin reddens the u rine. Odour.   When just voided urine is faintly aromatic but after a few minutes its characteristic odour is urinous.   The odour of urine is due to phenol.   It becomes pungent in concentrated urine, when urea is liberated in excess.   It becomes ammoniacal and putrescent and the reaction becomes alkaline after sometime when this excess of urea takes up water and is converted into ammonium carbonate.   It occurs quickly in urine from chronic cystitis or from suppurating diseases of kidney and bladder i.e., when urine is mixed with pus; blood or excessive phosphates.   The odour of urine in diabetes and in acetonuria is slightly sweetish.   The characteristic odour of garlic, sandal oil, cubebs, copaiba are given off when they are taken internally.   Turpentine gives an odour of violets. Appearance, physical character or transparency is the naked eye appearance of urine. Normal urine is always clear when voided but when allowed to stand for sometime it becomes slightly hazy or turbid due to suspended particles or from a slight cloud of mucus and epithelium. After sometime there may be sediments at the bottom due to gravity. If the urine is ammoniacal or decomposed a white turbidity forms due to sedimentation of phosphates or from bacterial activity. The turbidity or sediment is due mainly to the following suspended particles:- Urates. Uric Acid. Albumin. Phosphate. Mucus. Oxalate. Pus. Blood. Micro-organisms. To distinguish one from another, first of all fill three fourths of a test tube with urine and very gently heat the upper portion of the urine, holding the test tube by the bottom.   Now note whether the urine becomes clear or a cloudiness appears in the boiled portion, comparing with the lower unboiled portion of the test tube.   If the urine is turbid and clears up on heating then it contains Urates.   If the urine is clear and becomes cloudy with heat, before boiling point, then it is Albumen.   If the urine is clear and becomes cloudy at the boiling point, then it is Phosphate.   To distinguish between albumin and phosphate add 3 or 4 drops of acetic acid on the cloudy urine.   If the cloudiness disappears, then it is phosphate; but if the cloudiness remains or thickens, then it is albumin.   Lastly to distinguish between albumin and mucin add 2 drops of nitric acid, if the cloudiness disappears, then it is Mucin, but if the cloudi ness still persists, it is albumin. The turbidity of carbonates will clear up with effervescence on addition of nitric acid whereas heat and acid increases the turbidity due to albumin. To distinguish between phosphate and oxalate take some fresh urine and add ammonia, when there will be a precipitate. If on the addition of a few drops of acetic acid, the precipitates disappear, then it is phosphate, if it remains it is Oxalate. Failing the heat test take some urine in a test tube, preferably from the bottom and add a few drops of Liquor Potassae. Mix it thoroughly and if it clears up, then it is mucus; but if it becomes gelatinous or ropy, it is Pus. Next, if the deposit is coloured then take some urine in a test tube, preferably from the bottom and add a few drops of caustic potash and gently heat a little.   If it is dissolved, then it is Uric acid but if there is a precipitate, note the colour of the coagulum; if it is reddish brown or bottle green, it is Blood. If the urine is turbid and there is no change either by heat or by addition of caustic potash and heat, then the turbidity is due to Micro-organisms.   They generally clear up on the addition, of watery solution of ferric chloride and ammonium hydrate and then filter the urine.   Sometime the character, colour and reaction will roughly denote the element. Urates-They look like moss and are yellowish white or pink in colour.   Reaction is generally acid. They deposit when the urine becomes cold.   Uric Acid-It is crystalline and reddish brown in colour, resembling a shower of cayenne pepper grains. Reaction is moderately acid.   Phosphate-It forms a thin deposit and is white or yellowish white in colour.   Reaction may be slightly acid, alkaline or neutral.   Mucus-It is a cloudy or woolly looking white deposit. Reaction is slightly acid.   Oxalate-It is soft, shining and white in colour. Reaction is generally slightly acid. Pus- It looks like a ropy or creamy deposit, and is white in colour.   Reaction is slightly acid or  alkaline. Blood-It is clotted or thready and is red smoky or brownish in colour.   Reaction generally alkaline or may be slightly acid. Micro-organisms-The deposit is slightly hazy and white in colour.   They generally stick to the sides of the glass. COMPLICATIONS OF FRACTURES The majority of fractures heal without complications. If death occurs after a fracture, it is usually the result of damage to underlying organs and vascular structures or from complications of the fracture or immobility. Complications of fractures may be either direct or indirect. Direct complications include problems with bone infection, bone union, and avascular necrosis. Indirect complications are associated with blood vessel and nerve damage resulting in conditions such as compartment syndrome, venous thromboembolism, fat embolism, rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle), and hypovolemic shock. Although most musculoskeletal injuries are not life threatening, open fractures, fractures accompanied by severe blood loss, and fractures that damage vital organs (e.g., lung, heart) are medical emergencies requiring immediate attention. Compartment Syndrome Compartment syndrome is a condition in which swelling and increased pressure within a limited space (a compartment) press on and compromise the function of blood vessels, nerves, and/or tendons that run through that compartment. Compartment syndrome causes capillary perfusion to be reduced below a level necessary for tissue viability. Compartment syndrome usually involves the leg, but can also occur in the arm, shoulder, and buttock. Thirty-eight compartments are located in the upper and lower extremities. Two basic causes of compartment syndrome are (1) decreased compartment size resulting from restrictive dressings, splints, casts, excessive traction, or premature closure of fascia; and (2) increased compartment contents related to bleeding, inflammation, oedema, or IV infiltration. Oedema can create sufficient pressure to obstruct circulation and cause venous occlusion, which further increases oedema. Eventually arterial flow is compromised, resulting in ischemia to the extremity. As ischemia continues, muscle and nerve cells are destroyed over time, and fibrotic tissue replaces healthy tissue. Contracture, disability, and loss of function can occur. Delays in diagnosis and treatment cause irreversible muscle and nerve ischemia, resulting in a functionally useless or severely impaired extremity. Compartment syndrome is usually associated with trauma, fractures (especially the long bones), extensive soft tissue damage, and crush injury. Fractures of the distal humerus and proximal tibia are the most common fractures associated with compartment syndrome. Compartment injury can also occur after knee or leg surgery. Prolonged pressure on a muscle compartment may result when someone is trapped under a heavy object or a persons limb is trapped beneath the body because of an obtunded state such as drug or alcohol overdose. Clinical Manifestations. Compartment syndrome may occur initially from the bodys physiologic response to the injury, or it may be delayed for several days after the original insult or injury. Ischemia can occur within 4 to 8 hours after the onset of compartment syndrome. One or more of the following six Ps are characteristic of compartment syndrome: (1) pain distal to the injury that is not relieved by opioid analgesics and pain on passive stretch of muscle traveling through the compartment; (2) increasing pressure in the compartment; (3) paraesthesia (numbness and tingling); (4) pallor, coolness, and loss of normal colour of the extremity; (5) paralysis or loss of function; and (6) pulselessness, or diminished or absent peripheral pulses. Collaborative Care. Prompt, accurate diagnosis of compartment syndrome is critical.17 Perform and document regular neurovascular assessments on all patients with fractures, especially those with an injury of the distal humerus or proximal tibia or soft tissue injuries in these areas. Early recognition and effective treatment of compartment syndrome are essential to avoid permanent damage to muscles and nerves. Carefully assess the location, quality, and intensity of the pain (see Chapter 9). Evaluate the patients level of pain on a scale of 0 to 10. Pain unrelieved by drugs and out of proportion to the level of injury is one of the first indications of impending compartment syndrome. Pulselessness and paralysis (in particular) are later signs of compartment syndrome. Notify the health care provider immediately of a patients changing condition. Because of the possibility of muscle damage, assess urine output. Myoglobin released from damaged muscle cells precipitates and causes obstruction in renal tubules. This condition results in acute tubular necrosis and acute kidney injury.   Common signs are dark reddish brown urine and clinical manifestations associated with acute kidney injury (see Chapter 47). Elevation of the extremity may lower venous pressure and slow arterial perfusion. Therefore the extremity should not be elevated above heart level. Similarly, the application of cold compresses may result in vasoconstriction and exacerbate compartment syndrome. It may also be necessary to remove or loosen the bandage and split the cast in half (bivalving). A reduction in traction weight may also decrease external circumferential pressures. Surgical decompression (e.g., fasciotomy) of the involved compartment may be necessary (Fig. 63-15). The fasciotomy site is left open for several days to ensure adequate soft tissue decompression. Infection resulting from delayed wound closure is a potential problem after a fasciotomy. In severe cases of compartment syndrome, an amputation may be required. DEFINITION Compartment syndrome is a condition that  occurs when elevated pressure within a limited  space compromises the circulation, with  increased risk of irreversible damage to its  contents and their function. Acute compartment  syndrome is a surgical emergency.   ICD-10CM CODES 958.90 Compartment syndrome unspecified   958.90 Compartment syndrome, not  otherwise specified T79.A0 Compartment syndrome,  unspecified, initial encounter   M79.A11 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of right upper extremity   M79.A12 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of left upper extremity   M79.A19 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of unspecified upper  extremity   M79.A21 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of right lower extremity   M79.A22 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of left lower extremity M79.A29 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of unspecified lower  extremity   M79.A9 Nontraumatic compartment  syndrome of other sites   T79.A19A Traumatic compartment syndrome  of unspecified upper extremity,  initial encounter   T79.A21A Traumatic compartment syndrome  of right lower extremity, initial  encounter   T79.A22A Traumatic compartment syndrome  of left lower extremity, initial  encounter   T79.A29A Traumatic compartment syndrome  of unspecified lower extremity,  initial encounter   EPIDEMIOLOGY   DEMOGRAPHICS   Occurs most commonly after acute trauma,  especially with long bone fractures, comprising  75% of cases.   It usually occurs in persons Incidence is higher in males.   It can occur in other parts, such as the foot,  thigh, gluteal region, and abdomen.   Supracondylar fractures in children can commonly  lead to compartment syndrome.   6% to 9% of open tibial fractures are complicated  by compartment syndrome.   It is seen in all races and ethnicities.   PATHOPHYSIOLOGY   Compartment syndrome occurs when the blood  flow is less than the tissue metabolic demands,  causing tissue injury. It occurs when the intracompartmental  pressure increases limiting  venous outflow with rising venous pressure,  resulting in compromise of the local circulation  and tissue hypoxia with decreased arteriovenous  pressure gradient. Venous congestion additionally  leads to tissue edema and interstitial pressure,  and the compartment pressure continues to  increase. Compartment pressure ranges between  10 and 30 mm Hg of diastolic pressure are able  to cause the condition.   Different conditions are known to cause compartment  syndrome:   Conditions that limit compartment volume, such  as when patients have fracture casts, when  sedated or comatose patients lie on a limb for  a prolonged period, or when patients have tight  dressings that are applied externally.   Conditions that cause increased compartment  content, such as bleeding in the compartment  from vascular injury or diathesis, fractures or  finger injuries, reperfusion after ischemic injury  such as embolectomy and arterial bypass  grafting, severe bruising of muscle, and thermal  or electrical burn injuries.   Other injuries, such as extravasation of intravenous  fluids, injection of recreational drugs,  and snake bites.   PHYSICAL FINDINGS CLINICAL   PRESENTATION Signs and symptoms are usually apparent but  can be unreliable and can lead to delayed  diagnosis. Acute compartment syndrome can  worsen within hours; therefore serial examination  is important in a patient with suspected  compartment syndrome. Patients with tense  painful limbs are considered to have acute  compartment syndrome; however, diagnosis  is confirmed with the assessment of elevated  compartment pressure. Clinical signs and  symptoms include the following:   Pain disproportional to injury (the earliest sign)   Constant deep pain and pain that is referred  to the compartment on passive stretching  of the muscles of the affected compartment   (Fig. E1C-84, A) Reduced sense of touch or sensation (hypesthesia) within the territory of the nerve passing the compartment (in acute anterior  compartment syndrome, the patient may  have hypesthesia in the territory of the first  webspace)   Tense and swollen compartment (Figs. E1C-  84, B and 1C-84, C)   Muscle weakness   Paresis (late finding) that suggests permanent  muscle damage   Capillary refill can be slow but normal.   Peripheral pulses that are normally palpable  even in severe conditions   Tingling and numbness in the affected limb.  Hypesthesia or paresthesia should be evaluated  with pinprick, light touch, and two-point  discrimination tests.   Difficulty moving the extremities.   DIAGNOSIS Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and  symptoms along with compartment pressure.   Compartment pressure testing may be unnecessary  if the diagnosis is clinically obvious.   DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS Muscle strains   Cellulitis Gangrene Peripheral vascular injury Necrotizing fasciitis Stress fractures Deep vein thrombosis and thrombophlebitis Tendinitis Muscle contusion Tarsal tunnel syndrome Posterior ankle syndrome Popliteal artery impingement Claudication Tumor Venous insufficiency LABORATORY TESTS Diagnosis is based on clinical findings and  the measurement of compartment pressures.   Laboratory values are not useful in the diagnosis  of compartment syndrome but are important  for other diagnoses or associated conditions.   CBC with differential for evaluation of infection   Creatine phosphokinase (CK) levels, which  can rise as muscle injury develops   Metabolic panel for the assessment of electrolytes  and renal function   Coagulation profile for bleeding diathesis   Urinalysis for rhabdomyolysis   Urine and serum myoglobin levels   Compartment Syndrome   A B FIGURE 1C-84 C: A, Severe calf swelling due to  anterior and posterior compartment syndromes  after ischemia-reperfusion. B, Appearance after  emergency fasciotomy. Note edematous muscle  and hematoma. (Courtesy Michael J. Allen, FRCS,  Leicester, UK. From Floege J et al: Comprehensive  clinical nephrology, ed 4, Philadelphia, 2010,  Saunders.) http://internalmedicinebook.com   Compartment Syndrome 307 Diseases and Disorders IMAGING STUDIES Direct intracompartmental pressure measurement  can be done by handheld manometer,  wick or slit catheter technique, and simple  needle manometer system. Compartment   syndrome is diagnosed when the difference  between diastolic blood pressure and compartment  pressure (Ά pressure) is à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤30 mm Hg.   Ultrasonography can be used to rule out deep  vein thrombosis, or Doppler ultrasonography  can be used to evaluate blood flow to the  extremity. Arteriography should be used to  evaluate the adequate blood flow through a  compartment. Near-infrared spectroscopy and technetium-  99m methoxyisobutylisonitrile scintigraphy  can also be used.   Radiography can be used on the affected  limb for fracture or foreign body evaluation.   TREATMENT   Treatment goal is to keep intracompartmental  pressure low and prevent tissue injury (Fig.  1C-84, D). NONPHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY Immediate relieving of all external pressure  on the affected compartment   Removal of casts, splints, and dressings   Placing limb at heart level to avoid decreased  or increased blood flow   ACUTE GENERAL Rx   Analgesics for pain Hyperbaric oxygen Hypotension can worsen tissue ischemia and  thus should be treated with IV isotonic saline. Fasciotomy of the affected compartment  is indicated if there has been >6 hr of  limb ischemia, or immediate decompression  should be performed when the compartment  pressure > 30 to 35 mm Hg.   Measurement of compartment pressure is  not necessary to perform fasciotomy if clinical  suspicion is high depending on history  and clinical examination.   When compartment pressures are trending  downward, it is often safe to delay emergent  fasciotomy, provided the Ά pressure is also  improving. CHRONIC Rx   Aftercare of fasciotomy wound: Wound is  inspected after 48 hours and dead tissue is  removed.   Wounds are left open, requiring later skin  grafting or delayed wound closure.   Opsite sheet and boot lace techniques are  also used for closing fasciotomy wounds.   Concomitant fractured bones should also be  stabilized with plating, external fixation, or  intramedullary nailing.   DISPOSITION With early diagnosis and treatment, the prognosis  is excellent for recovery of the muscles and  nerves inside the compartment. The following  conditions can be prevented:   Permanent nerve damage/paralysis   Muscle contracture Gangrene Amputation Muscle necrosis Fracture nonunion Rhabdomyolysis that leads to renal failure Compartment syndrome that can occur in  open fractures Permanent nerve injury, which can occur after  12 to 24 hr of compression; mortality rates in  patients who need fasciotomy is à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 15%. REFERRAL Patients with suspected compartment syndrome  should be referred promptly to orthopedic  and general surgery. PEARLS CONSIDERATIONS Universal precautions and aseptic measures are necessary for patients undergoing fasciotomy because the risk of local and systemic infection is high with the procedure. Invasive monitoring techniques should be undertaken with adequate analgesia so that patient immobility is ensured while the pressure is measured. Injection of local anaesthetics into the compartment can increase the pressure and pain and therefore should be avoided. Patients with fracture casts should be informed about the risks of swelling, and patients should also be encouraged to wear appropriate equipment while playing sports. A history of coagulation disorders and the use of anticoagulants should be mentioned in a patients medical history. Assault Assault has two different interpretations. 1. Traditionally called common assault and consisting of the making of an unlawful and intentional (or possibly only reckless) threat to inflict imminent force against the person where the victim was aware of the threat.   A distinction was previously maintained at common law between common assault and battery.   Increasing codification of criminal law has resulted in abandonment of this distinction and in Australia assault now commonly refers both to common assault and actual infliction of force.   Statutory provisions for the different states are numerous and terminology varies (e.g. offences of causing injury or threatening). 2. One of three ma

Early Childhood Development Essay -- Papers Child Analysis Children Es

The child that I chose for my observation is a two-year-old; Caucasian, female named Crystal. While observing her in a private facility, I was able to determine if she is behind, right on target, or advanced in areas of development. I observed her physical, intellectual, social and emotional developments. Physical development includes the child's body size, body proportion, normal growth, brain development, and motor skills. Intellectual development, or cognitive development, includes play patterns, reasoning, memory, attention span, and language development. Social and emotional development includes development of empathy, emotional self-regulation, peer sociability, and sex typing. The child that I observed exhibited normal growth patterns, advanced cognitive development in language especially, and normal social and emotional development. Physically, Crystal is right on target. Even though she is shorter than other children her age, she still achieves all types of activities set fo rth for her. The general growth curve explains that the growth and changes in the body size is slower during early and middle childhood. As far as gross and fine motor developments are concerned, she is also right on target. On the playground, Crystal is running, jumping, hopping, and riding a bike. When it comes to drawing, Crystal sits very quietly and concentrates on what she is doing. Crystal is advanced intellectually for her age. Experts say that brain development is very rapid during age's 2-6 years of age. Crystal also has an excellent memory, a wide attention span, and a great imagination. Make-believe is a very important part of Crystal's everyday routine, but she can distinguish between her imagination and reality. When Crystal tells a st... ...elopment. From my experience with other children her age, weather they are children of friends or family, I believe that her attendance at a preschool has helped her a lot with the majority of her development. Generally, Crystal is a well-rounded, well-developed 2-year-old. She is a smart, insightful, and a joy to be around. I have learned a lot about her development, even in such a short period of time. Even though I have learned a lot about Crystal, the only person can and should be the true observers are the parents. I often find myself watching my brothers, sister, cousins and the children that I work with. In the last couple of weeks, I have come to understand their weaknesses and strong points of development. This is something I had never taken the time to do before. By learning and understanding development, I will be able to understand and help them better.

Ethics in Professional Nursing Practice Essay -- Nursing Ethical Princi

This assignment addresses the implications relating to an ethical dilemma encountered in practice using an appropriate model of reflection. The assignment will highlight ethical theories and four guiding ethical principles, such as autonomy, beneficence, paternalism and non-malificence. The two main principles that will be discussed in depth will be autonomy and beneficence and how they impact on practice. I will use Bortons (1970) reflective model, which was taken from Jasper (2003). An incident, which occurred on practice placement, involved a patient’s decision to withdraw from active treatment. It is hoped that by exploring the incident in depth, a greater understanding of moral and ethical principles will be gained. All names that will be used within the text are pseudonyms. This is to ensure confidentiality, as stated by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC 2004). Health care professionals have a legal and moral obligation to care. They have to respect the patient’s decision even though they themselves find it difficult (Butts and Rich 2005). Decisions are not unproblematic. They have to be rationalised, as there are many dividing thoughts, which must be acknowledged. The dilemma occurred whilst on practice placement with District Nurses (DN) in the community. It involved a 72-year-old female whom we shall refer to as Clare, who made a utilitarian decision to forego active treatment. It was an autonomous decision and the DN and I had to respect her choice but we were concerned with the practicalities associated with her judgment. Attempting to relieve pain and suffering is a primary responsibility for the nurse (Butts and Rich 2005). Clare was extremely weak and she was not able to take the sta... ...nsent 1: concepts and definitions. British Journal of Nursing, 12(1), 43-47. Singleton, J., & McClaren, S. (1995). Ethical frameworks of health care. London: Mosby. Tadd, W. (1998). Ethical issues in nursing and midwifery practice. Houndmills: Macmillan Press. Thomas, A. (n.d.). Patient autonomy and cancer treatment decisions. Retrieved from http://www.internurse.com on 26th October 2005. Thompson, D. (1996). Concise Oxford Dictionary. (9th ed.). London: BCA. Thompson, R., Melia, K., & Boyd, K. (2004.). Nursing Ethics. (4th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Wilkinson, J. (1997). Developing a concept analysis of autonomy in nursing practice. British Journal of Nursing, 6(12), 703-707. Wilmot, S. (2003). Ethics, power and policy: The future of nursing in the NHS. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Compare and Contrast Sudanic and Mongolian Empires

While the West African Sudanic Empire and Mongols were similar because they both had great centers of trade, such as Timbuktu and the Silk Road, and had a flourishing economy, the Sudanic Empire was greatly influenced by Islam whereas the Mongols accepted many different faiths and the Mongol Empire rose though war and conquest through violence, while the Sudanic Empire rose through more peaceful strategies. The Mongols and the Sudanic empires both had successful economies. The Mongols conquered China in 1220 and established control there.This control enabled them to have ownership of the Silk Road, which brought in plenty of cash due to the demand for Chinese products such as porcelain, silk, etc. The Mongols also took taxes and tributes from their subjects, which provided them with money for their military campaigns. The Sudanic Empire had control of the trans-Saharan trade, which included centers of trade such as Timbuktu. Under Sunni Ali, the empire reached high levels in trade an d economic success. While the Sudanic Empire was greatly influenced by Islam, the Mongols did not follow any one religion.Through trade and interaction, the religion of Islam was spread to the Sudanic Empire. Because it was accepted by many rulers, much of the population converted to Islam. The religion became so popular that, in the 1500s, the trading city of Timbuktu had a prominent Islamic university &180 schools that taught the Quran. The Mongol Empire had a polytheistic religion in the beginning, but had no governing organized religion system. Through interaction, many Mongols converted to faiths such as Islam and Christianity because they were stationed in areas where those religions were popular, such as Persia and Baghdad.There was never any extremely popular faith that the Mongos followed. Although the Sudanic and Mongol empires had different faiths, they were both tolerant to other religions. The Sudanic Empire continued to let the African polytheistic religions practice t heir faith and the Mongols did not disturb the religions of the places they conquered but rather assimilated to them. The Mongol Empire rose though war and conquest through violence, while the Sudanic Empire rose through more peaceful strategies.The Mongols were known for their great skill on the battlefield. It was through this skill that they conquered their subjects. Killing and looting was the Mongolian past time and was a fun experience for them. Under Genghis Khan, the Mongols massacred and devastated civilizations. The Sudanic Empire was much less destructive, compared to the Mongols. There was some violence for example when the Mali Empire replaced the Ghanaians, but it was not as large scale as the Mongols massacring Baghdad.

Ecological Systems Theory Essay

As I was growing up, I always heard of the expression that â€Å"people are a product of their environment†. I never gave this expression much thought until I got older and became more aware of my surroundings and my own environment. Personally, I feel that there is some truth to this statement. A person’s environment is very influential to their development. A famous psychologist that studied child development, Dr. Urie Bronfenbrenner, developed the ecological systems theory to show how a child’s development can be influenced by their environment. Dr. Bronfenbrenner felt that â€Å"a person’s development is the product of a constellation of forces-cultural, social, economic, political- and not merely psychological ones† (Fox, 2005, para 6). According to an article by Nancy Darling of Oberlin College, â€Å"Ecological Systems Theory is presented as a theory of human development in which everything is seen as interrelated and our knowledge of develo pment is bounded by context, culture, and history† (Darling, 2007, p. 204). The Ecological Systems Theory consists of five levels of the environment that are influential to a child’s development. These five levels are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. These five levels each contribute significantly and helps to mold an individual which can affect their personality, the way they think, and who they are as a person overall. The first level, the microsystem, consists of the immediate environment that the child is in on a daily basis (Oswalt, 2008). The microsystem would include a child’s immediate family, teachers, neighbors, daycare, school, and peers or anyone who a child or individual interacts with directly on a daily basis. The microsystem is important to a child’s development because if the environment they are around on a daily basis is stable, nurturing, and caring, then that child will likely model the same behavior. However, if the child is in an environment where they are neglected and abused or see violence, this can have an influence on their behavior and cause them to become affected by this negative environment. For example, if a child is surrounded by a family who is violent and does not pay much attention to their needs, neighbors that use profanity, and aggressive peers, then this child is exposed to more negative than positive behaviors. This can cause the child to model what they are exposed to, which is negativity. However, if the same child is in an environment where the family is nurturing, the teachers are welcoming and encourage learning, and its’ peers display positive social skills, then the child is exposed to positive behavior and is more likely to display positive behavior than negative. This level is closest to the child and is the most influential level of the ecological system (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). The next level of the ecological systems theory is the mesosystem. The mesosystem consists of how the people in the child’s microsystem interact with each other. The mesosystem is the connection, or the relationship, between the parents and the teachers or the child and their peers, to name a few. For example, if the child’s parents have a good relationship with his or her teacher and are involved with their education, this can help encourage learning and promote good behavior and good grades at school. If the parents are not involved at school and do not interact with the child’s teacher regularly, the child may feel as if education is not important and may display poor behavior and grades at school, which affects their learning. The ecological systems theory also includes the exosystem. The exosystem consists of people that the child may not interact with on a daily basis but still has an influence on that child such as their neighbors, a coach, a preacher. The exosystem could also consist of situations that may happen to the parents that indirectly affects the child such as promotions or layoffs at work. A promotion or layoff at work determines how the child will be taken care of and impacts their physical needs (Oswalt, 2008). This type of situation can be either negative or positive for the child. A preacher or a coach can be looked upon as a role model or mentor to the child and can be very influential to a child and their development. The last two levels of the ecological systems theory are the macrosystem and the chronosystem. The macrosystem consists of cultures, values, and laws. The macrosystem â€Å"describes the culture in which individuals live† (Santrock, 2007). The macrosystem has much to do with what is going on in society and how it affects the child. For example, a recession, a war, how society views gender roles, and the child’s family values, can all greatly affect the development of a child. This can influence how a child feels about the government, its views on war, or what the child grows up to value. The chronosystem is life events that can alter or change how the child feels about certain things or situations. For example, any transition such as a death of a parent, a birth of another child, or a divorce can change the views of a child. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development has helped to shape my development because as I was a young child, my parents were affectionate and nurturing towards myself and my siblings, we were raised in a positive, stable, and structured environment, and my parents supported a good education and were involved with our teachers in school. The way my parents raised me has helped me to become a great mother to my son. I try to make sure that the people in his microsystem that he deals with directly are positive in order to help him develop and grow into a positive individual. I consider myself to be nurturing and supportive towards my son. We have a good relationship and I try to raise him a positive environment as well. I instill in him, the values that my parents instilled in me. Since my levels in the ecological system were positive as I was growing up, I feel that it has influenced me to become a well-rounded individual. It has helped me to have morals, values, and sel f-respect. The levels in my ecological system have influenced me to value education and to want to pursue an education on the graduate level. Because I take my role as a mother seriously, I want to offer my son the best life possible. This means that I have to be a great provider for him, which includes having a stable job that pays well and working in a career that I enjoy. I have always enjoyed learning about child development and I currently work with children in the mental health field. Obtaining a master’s degree will help me to be able to develop and grow personally and more professionally so that I can be a better provider for my family as well as get a job in the field that I wish to pursue. My career goals include working with children and adolescents either in the school system, as a child psychologist or social worker, or in the juvenile justice field. In the future, I hope to continue working with children directly, as a part of their microsystem, in order to make a differenc e and be a positive influence to them, as individuals in my microsystem were to me. So, is it safe to say that â€Å"people are a product of their environment?† I think Dr. Urie Bronfenbrenner did a good job of showing that this can be true by developing the ecological systems theory. However, we still have to be aware of the fact that although a child’s environment is very influential to their development, they have the power to change, or transition, their thoughts and beliefs. We must remember that a person’s beliefs systems can also be affected by experiences and situations that they encounter throughout life. So, yes our environment is very influential to our development, but we do not have to be a product of our environment since we are able to make changes within ourselves to become who we want to be. References Darling, N. (2007). Ecological Systems Theory: The Person in the Center of the Circles. p. 204. Retrieved December 20, 2012 from http://www.uamont.edu/facultyweb/brown/PSY4683/Darling(2007).pdf Fox, M. (2005). Urie Bronfenbrenner; renowned authority on child development. New York Times News Service. Retrieved December 20, 2012 from http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20051002/news_mz1j2urie.html Oswalt, A. (2008). Urie Bronfenbrenner and Child Development. Retrieved December 21, 2012 from http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7930&cn=28 Paquette, D. & Ryan, J. (2001). Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. Retrieved December 20, 2012 from http://people.usd.edu/~mremund/bronfa.pdf Santrock, J. (2007). Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. Retrieved December 20, 2012 from http://impactofspecialneeds.weebly.com/bronfenbrennerrsquos-ecological-systems-theory.html